Solar cooling technology in football stadiums Dissertation

Solar cooling technology in football stadiums - Dissertation Example It is this hint that brought about the cooling technology utilizing solar energy which could be applied in large capacity buildings i. e football stadiums. According to Solar power energy generation, (2010) solar energy will be the main source of power generation in the turn of the century. Aside the fact that the use of solar energy could be by far cheaper than the use of fuels or biofuels in certain technological operations, for the very fact that sunlight is not paid for, we must also take note that strength of the source is strong as the sun emanates over 15 million degrees Kelvin or about 27 million degrees Fahrenheit degrees of heat per minute ( NASA Cosmicopia,2009 ). But it is noteworthy to observe that the application or working process of this technology could be very complicated and needs accuracy in other to function properly and adequately. Now Qater has chosen to utilize the cooling technology by way of solar energy to generate cool air in its large capacity stadiums in the 2022 FIFA World cup. The first of the kind to be hosted in the middle east. This is the biggest challenge of the century for a small country like Qater who are determined to conquer the summer heat and make the atmosphere chilling and comfortable for people all over the world who will be at the tournament. Most of such people are Europeans who are used to cold and cool weather. At the same time Qatar has decided to reduce cost by employing this technology. But I must forewarn before we delve in depth into this research work, that if the subject matter is not understood properly, if the rudiments and nitty gritties of the technology are not clearly explained, if the step by step process of the workability of the technology are not clearly defined, if the dimensions of operations as projected by Qater sports development ministry are not accurately modified etc. this could lead to an unnecessary waste of taxpayers money and could be the most fatal mistake made by a Nation in recen t times. That is why a lot of time will be taken to explain the step by step process of the technology from various perspectives and works of authorities before i draw my conclusion and master plan. Thus the work will be divided into three broad parts. The first part will focus on the overall technology, the second part will focus on its application in Qater, in this part the following will be clearly explained though with stronger and more professional terminologies: 1- Solar Harvesting. 2- Storage. 3- Heat Conversion. 4- Cold Storage. 5- Chilled Air Delivery. The third part will show by picturesque diagrams, how the newly modified concepts will be pragmatic in its application. At the end of the research, the following will be accurately and professionally achieved: an improvement in the design concept with product design specification (PDS), accurate calculation such as the energy required for the stadium etc. Lastly this research will put forward the following in both a descripto ry and an analytic form for easy application by the end user i.e. †¢ Focus on low energy concepts to create thermal comfort. †¢ Apply innovative, green, highly efficient cooling technology. †¢ Produce electrical energy by integrated photovoltaic systems. The Objectives of the study which are as follows will be clearly and precisely achieved: - Introducing the new cooling technology. - Applying the cooling system into the outdoor stadiums. -

Conflict & Stress Management Essay Example for Free

Conflict Stress Management Essay 1.0 INTRODUCTION Stress and conflict are two major issues any organisation faces. They are inevitable in all facets of life, be individual or organisational. If not handled well they can be a hindrance for the company performance. Conflict and stress both varies according to the organisation and its culture. But both need to be managed well to avoid unnecessary problems. Conflict is a perception. Surveys show that employees spend as much as 42% of their time engaging in or attempting to resolve conflicts and 20% of managers’ time is taken up by conflict related issues (Gupta, Boyd, Kuzmits, 2011). This valuable time can be utilised in making the organisation a more efficient and an effective one. Organisations which fail to address conflict have the risk of losing their competitive advantage. Conflict can be viewed in many ways and there are different management styles which can deal with conflict. The leadership of the organisation must be involved in dealing with conflict as they would have to negotiate and bargain in order to overcome conflict. Stress is a major concern with today’s working people. This is because the world is developing in a faster pace which requires constant adaptation. Stress not only affects ones work-life balance, but also their personal life which creates chaos for individuals. According to some estimation, humankind losses 100 million workdays every year due to the aftermath of stress (Treven Potocan, 2005). Work stress needs to be managed well so it can actually improve the well being of the individuals as well as the organisation. Both of these factors will be viewed in the context of Nippon Lanka and will be analysed thoroughly on how they overcome these issues to maintain a healthy relationship with employees. Improvements and recommendations for the current methods will also be discussed. 2.0 OVERVIEW Nippon Lanka Pvt Ltd (NPLK) is a joint venture (JV) between the Nippon PLC Japan (NPJ) and Silicone Coatings Pvt Ltd (SC) Sri Lanka where the NPJ brought over 60% of Silicones shares. This joint venture is advantageous to both parties where NPJ is able to use this as an entry method and SC as an opportunity to be a part of a global industry. Formation of this JV took almost a year where Nippon Lanka studied SC and the relevant industry as whole to get an idea of the present market conditions. It was found that there was no better time to enter the Sri Lankan market due to the post war era development. Therefore SC was considered due to their strong presence in the market. Today after about three months from successfully forming the JV the company is going through a transition period. There aren’t any major changes to positions in the hierarchy but there are role changes and employees are finding it difficult to adapt to their new roles. Example: The Managing Director (MD) of the company who was the owner of the company still is the MD how ever to day the person is a salaried employee. The General Manager who was reporting directly to MD today has to report to the Board of directors where MD is just one out of the five directors. When examining the company culture towards conflict, the company culture and the value system which has been there for 35 years from the date of the establishment is now being changed. SC was established in 1979, as a small scale manufacture and a distributer of paint related ancillaries. By the time Nippon approached SC it had grown into the largest local player in the market where it was second only to the global giant Akzonobal by a 3% margin. It is evident that SC has been a one man show up to the time of the JV, the full value system and the operational procedures were laid down by the founder himself and not most of the managers found it enticing to be part of. Therefore the HR turnover was such that on average about six key resources left the company. In this back ground let’s see how the conflict and stress management function takes place within the organization. 3.0 CONFLICT AND CONFLICT MANAGEMENT 3.1 Conflict Management Styles Conflict can be defined as the process that begins when one party perceives that another party has negatively affected, or is about to negatively affect, something the first party cares about (Robbins S., Judge T. Vohra N., 2011:441). It is that point in an ongoing activity when an interaction crosses over to become an interparty conflict. Conflict can be seen as good and bad with corresponding positive and negative outcomes where this would all depend on how one views conflict. There are three basics views of conflict. These are the Traditional view, the Interactionist view and Managed conflict view. The traditional view sees conflict as bad and something that must be eliminated through the use of authority. Poor communication, lack of openness and failure to respond to employee needs could be seen as few of the causes. The interactionist view is that conflict is desirable, necessary for high performance teams and should be encouraged. The contemporary view is that conflict is inevitable and it may be positive or negative but it must be managed to be beneficial. Nippon Lanka follows a more interactionist view where conflict is encouraged and the company is of the view that a perfectly cooperative, harmonious group would hinder dynamism, creativity and innovation where a minimal level of conflict is needed to prevent a lacklustre, uninterested attitude among the group. As mentioned earlier, not all conflicts are good, and this view only supports functional conflict. Functional conflict is a constructive form of conflict that supports the goals of the group and improves performance. The type of conflict at hand would distinguish a functional conflict from a dysfunctional conflict. Although these are distinct types of conflict, the occurrence of one type of conflict can lead to a conflict of another type taking place. For example, the process of costing has been kept confidential, and this has led to the tension between the sales team and the costing team. 3.2TYPES OF CONFLICT PRESENT IN NIPPON LANKA 3.2.1Relationship conflict Conflicts between two people are known as relationship conflicts. These conflicts arise as a result of miscommunication, disagreements or misunderstandings between people. One such situation at Nippon Lanka arose between the Brand Manager and the Marketing Manager. The Brand manager has been with the company for 5 years and has previously worked with two Heads of marketing. Once the new marketing manager was appointed, it was found that the latter was less experienced and was not willing to corporate with the Marketing Head. This triggered huge problems for the new comer. The management was aware of this, but wasn’t able to remove him from the position due to the valuable connections the customers. However, the Marketing Manager understood this inferiority complex of the Brand Manager. Having gone through the initial hardships the new marketing manager somehow managed to win the trust of the Brand manager. Now they are working harmoniously, directing all their efforts towards the benefit of the company. 3.2.2.Data Conflict This occurs when decisions are made without adequate information. At Nippon Lanka, the costing department works in isolation. They do not consult the sales and marketing team when arriving at the costs, so more often than not, the cost of the product is either too high, depriving them of valuable orders and potential growth, or at times its too low depriving the opportunity for the company to charge a premium price on an innovative product or to achieve efficiency through specialisation. 3.2.3Interest Conflict Conflicts of interest mainly deal with psychological issues, where an individual or organisation behaves in a certain manner, with the aim of meeting a particular interest which is not shared by everyone else. The JV with the Japanese company was not disclosed or made public, even though doing so would have been acting in the best interests of the company. The MD did not like the idea of publicising the 60:40 JV that was taking place, as it would be viewed as a takeover. However, the rest of the company felt that some amount of public awareness would have positively impacted the companys future performance. Another example would be when the HR department wanted to minimise the over time cost they imposed a rule where all sales vehicle needs to be back at the HO by 5 pm. As an example what the Sales representatives would do is when they need to deliver goods up to Negombo, covering Wattala, Ja-ela, Seeduwa and Negombo. They would turn back from Seeduwa at 3.30 pm in order to make it back to office by 5 pm, without covering their full distance to Negombo. What followed was a delay in the delivery and travelling additional mileage, having to revisit incomplete routes taking the same path. 3.2.4 Structural Conflict Structural conflict arises from unclear and undefined roles and reporting lines. The RD and the production manger are directly reporting to the MD. The other managers report to the GM, where the GM reports to the MD. Currently when a sales representative needs to develop a sample for a particular customer, the sales representative will not have the adequate support since the request from the sales rep will not be taken seriously from the RD manager and the GM cannot question them for not doing it right. Only 10 out of 1 samples are successful and yet the RD manager has managed to survive, distracting the control and supervisory system of the top management since there is no clear reporting structure. 3.2.5 Value Conflict A value conflict comes about when two people or groups have dissenting views on moralitythat basic understanding of what is naturally right or wrong. As mentioned earlier, the cost manager considered himself and his department superior than the other departments, with the notion that the information handled need not be disclosed to anyone else. At present, the cost manager is in prison, facing charges of fraud. Although the environment helped the person to carry out fraud, this is a clear example of conflicting values. 3.3 THE CONFLICT PROCESS Figure 1: The Conflict Process (Source: Robbins S., Judge T. Vohra N., 2005:444) 3.3.1Stage I: Potential opposition or incompatibility The first stage talks about the conditions that are needed for conflict to arise. They may not directly lead to conflict, but they need to be present for conflict to surface. They can be referred to as the causes of conflict and can be condensed into three general categories, namely communications, structure and personal variables. Communication, either too much or too little information passed between members can result in potential opportunities for conflict to arise. At Nippon Lanka, the manner in which the costing of the products is carried out is not communicated to the members in the other dept and this has been the initiating factor for conflict to set in. Structure includes several variables such as size, degree of specialization in the tasks assigned to the group members, role clarity, member-goal compatibility, leadership styles, reward systems, and the degree of dependence among groups. The sales and promotions manager at Nippon Paints follow an aggressive, predator style of leadership where excuses were not tolerated and was only interested in the achievement of results and targets. An example would be, the samples taken from the production team that is used for sales and promotion does not meet the required standards of quality where 9 out of 10 samples would fail. Same time, the Sales and promotions manager would also be very demanding of the sales representatives in terms of getting the desired targets. In some cases, employees have resigned due this demanding nature. Personal variables are mainly due to differences in personal traits of individuals. Diverse issues such as prejudice and disagreements over ones contribution to the group, as well as the rewards one deserves. For example, at Nippon Paints, the General Manager is prepared to hire new trainees at Rs. 15,000/=, whereas the Sales and Promotions Manager feels that the market rate of Rs. 30,000/= should be paid to them. The low salaries have deterred attracting the talented individuals and therefore not achieving the fullest potential. 3.3.2Stage II: Cognition and Personalization If the conditions mentioned in stage I negatively affect something one party cares about, then the potential for opposition or incompatibility surfaces in the second stage. One or both parties must be aware and perceive that these conditions exist. However, just because it is perceived does not make the conflict personalized. It may not have an effect on either or both parties. The conflict has to be felt, for individuals become emotionally involved, leading to anxiety, tension, frustration or hostility. 3.3.3Stage III: Intentions Intentions get in the way of peoples perceptions and emotions and act as decisions for them to react the way they do to the situation at hand. They are important, as one has to make inferences of the other partys intentions to know and understand the reason behind that partys behavior and to respond accordingly. Conflicts tend to escalate at this point merely because of the wrong inferences being made. Sometimes a behavior might erroneously reflect the persons intentions. Two dimensions are used, namely cooperativeness (the degree to which one party attempts to satisfy the other partys concerns) and assertiveness (the degree to which one party attempt to satisfy his or her own concerns) to identify five conflict handling intentions. This has been attached to Appendix 1 with the styles explained. 3.3.4Stage IV: Behavior This stage includes actions, statements and reactions made by the conflicting parties. Intentions of each party are implemented through these behaviors and can be seen as a dynamic process of interaction. Conflicts usually start slow; characterized by indirect rather subtle forms of tension and escalate as the tension builds. At this latter stage things could become highly destructive where such conflicts are almost always dysfunctional. 3.3.5Stage V: Outcomes Behavior would lead to outcomes, where some are functional in that the conflict results in an improvement in the groups performance or it may also be dysfunctional in that it hinders group performance. Functional conflict can be beneficial for the company as it provides a medium through which problems can be aired and tensions released. This improves the quality of decisions, stimulates creativity and innovation, encourages interest and curiosity among group members and it forces and environment of self-evaluation and change. Some companies discourage conflict as they prefer yes-men, loyal to the higher ups to the point of never questioning company actions. As for dysfunctional conflict it would reduce group effectiveness and group cohesiveness. At the extreme, conflict can bring group functioning to a halt and potentially threaten the groups survival. Refer Appendix II for the example of a conflict Process at Nippon paints. 3.3 NEGOTIATING AND BARGAINING Before the organisation starts negotiating they should be aware of the nature of the conflict. There is a certain process that needs to be followed in negotiation. Negotiation is by definition the management of crossed demands, where each one of us expresses requests hoping the other will try to fulfil them (Lempereur, A. 2012). As it is said â€Å"Everything is negotiation in life†, so every party involved in the process would like to take the best out of it. 3.3.1 Bargaining Strategies There are two bargaining strategies that could be discussed. Distributive bargaining and integrative bargaining. In the current context what is more obvious is integrative bargaining which makes both the parties involved satisfied creating a win-win situation. An example for this was when a sales representative requests for a personal vehicle they need to achieve a certain level of sales targets. If they maintain the sales targets for a sustainable period they will be given a personal vehicle. But by any chance if they do not keep up to the said targets their salaries will be reduced in accordance with the cost of maintaining the vehicle by the company. Through a situation like this, what is created is a long term positive relationship for the company. As a company, they increase the sales levels and the employees will also be satisfied as their needs are also met. 3.3.2 Negotiation Process Negotiation can happen in 5 steps; these are preparation and planning, definition and ground rules, clarification and justification, bargaining and problem solving and closure and implementation. Some do not have a positive ending or a closure. But negotiations that have an effect for the organisation will go through a process. An example of this would be when the company needs to host certain function in hotels they would negotiate with them for the best bargain. As they have cost constraints, there are certain limitations and getting the best bargain with the best outcome would be the perfect scenario. Before the start of the negotiation with the relevant hoteliers the in-charge person will prepare the list of things that need to be discussed. These would be the pricing, menu items, additional services that are required and assess what the other party goals and prepare well for them. In this instance a budget per person would be Rs. 3,000. But the relevant hotels cost was higher. Then the menus for these relevant amounts will be compared. In the Sri Lankan context rather than a 4 or 5 course meal, action stations with koththu and hoppers have a vibrant feeling and also cost less. So in the negotiation table the other alternatives will be put across. Since information is all gathered, the representative will develop a strategy. The person will also determine the Best Alternative to a Negotiated Agreement (BATNA). So here the BATNA will be to get cost per person at Rs. 3,000 having action stations with cocktail menu. The person will determine when and where to have the appointment. The ideal place would be at hotel premises because then the ambiance where service capacity can also be viewed. The meeting would be planned in the best time where both parties are not strained with other commitments and can concentrate for a best outcome. Once the initial stance is made then there will be further clarifications and explanations. Then both parties will try to come up with concessions in order to make a decision. Once both parties are satisfied they will formalize the agreement. In this process Nippon Lanka representatives will stress on the fact that if one event is made a success; then the hotel is winning a long term corporate client. This enhances their business. 3.3.3 Third Party Negotiation This is crucial for Nippon Lanka as they deal with lot of suppliers and customers. Advertising is a crucial part for this organisation and dealing with media is important to get a good advertising deal. Earlier they were dealing with the television and radio stations by themselves and it was quite strenuous. Getting a good deal that is worth their money was tough and time consuming, having deal with different organisations, so they decided to obtain third party involvement. The outcome was to get a consultant to act on media buying for the organisation. A consultant is a skilled and impartial third party who attempts to facilitate problem solving through communication and analysis (Robbins S., Judge T. Vohra N., 2011:457). They are there to improve the current status and to get a win-win solution for both parties. When Nippon started using a third party advertising firm to do media buying, they were able to get good deals from media as they have a high bargaining power. 4.0 WORK STRESS STRESS MANAGEMENT Stress is a dynamic condition in which an individual is confronted with an opportunity, demand, or resource related to what the individual desires and for which the outcome is perceived to be both uncertain and important (Robbins, Judge Vohrs, 554). Most of the time stress is discussed in the negative contest but this is not true at all times. Stress can be taken into the system as an advantage. In the current organisation stress factor is not talked openly even though people are put under stress levels it is not considered as value adding option for the organisation. In the organisation currently what is seen is the challenge stresses but sometimes these same factors do become hindrance stressors for the employees. 4.1 Sources of stress The main sources of stress in the organisation comes from environmental and organisation factors. When it comes to environmental factors; the three types of uncertainties are economic, political and technological. These play a minimal role compared to organisational and personal factors. In considering environment factors; the workers are stressed on the technological aspect. Research and development team is always under pressure in getting a new product development before their competitors. Organisation heads are concerned about the Political uncertainty. Whenever a new rule or regulation is passed by government with regard to the consumer protection or protecting environment this takes a toll in the organisation activities. They must be aware of the new laws and how to tackle them, this adds a lot of strain in the management as they need to alter or change certain decisions according to political scenarios. Change in economic policies and recessions or booms in the economic cycle create stress on the organisation. Current economic down turn have made a toll in the sales teams as consumers are spending less and government projects have considerably reduced. At the same time government is not paying their debt and collections have become harder. Organisational factors are the ones that are created by the organisation which creates stress on employees. Task demands such as collecting debts in 90 days have a strain on the employee. This increases the job pressure. Role demands relate to pressure that occurs due to the job role. Managers and above have high role related pressures compared to subordinates due to the heavy work load which needs to be performed in less time. Most employees complain that they are given more work than they can handle and it stresses them out a lot. At the same time many complain the targets given are not practical. There is a minimal level of interpersonal demands where other employees are not supportive. Personal factors which increase stress are different to every individual. But this does create a hindrance in the organisation performance. All or some of these factors create a high turnover or absenteeism, reduction in productivity and decrease in job satisfaction. Sadly Nippon Lanka has not recognised the importance of stress management in order to curb it or cure it. The main organisational stress come comes from the current management change, this is because the task and role demands have changed and employees need to adjust to the new roles. Personal factors too trigger stress level of the employees. 4.2 Managing Stress at Nippon Lanka Pvt Ltd Based on the study, it is visible that Nippon Lanka uses stress as a positive motivator, but at some points it goes out of hand where it depletes the collaboration and coordination amongst the teams and also inter department. Based on the job roles, the department heads can think of the stress levels which can be imposed on the team members to get results and to meet targets. However the stress levels should be correctly managed so that it motivates results and not deplete and impede the team building and performance drive within the teams. As it is observed, some amount of stress comes from the non-alignment of the reporting lines. Therefore the suggestion is to relook at the reporting lines so that stress does not occur due to incorrect alignment of the business structure which has a negative impact and which creates unnecessary types of stress within teams. Together with the Job role enrichment, reporting lines should also be re-aligned so that the company will only be left with stress which causes the company to perform and not to impede. 5.0 CONCLUSION In conclusion conflict, negotiation and stress are all visible in Nippon Paint. Conflict is unavoidable at the organisation due to the dealings they have among the departments and the third parties. To overcome conflict certain understanding among employees and stakeholders must be implemented. It can be seen that conflict, negotiation and stress are interlinked with each other on some level. Organisational conflict styles may shape an organisations social environment, affecting the level of ongoing conflict and thus the level of stress among employees. Nippon Lanka to a great extent follows an integrative style of conflict management which leads to lower task conflict, reducing relationship conflict, which reduces stress. However, there are many instances where the management has not come up with a solution to the conflict at hand, where they are not willing to step in and the employees are left to resolve the matter, which at most times remains unresolved. The recommended improvements with regard to this has been discussed in Section 3.4. It is important that with the JV taking place, the new management plays an active role in resolving these long running issues so that the organisation and its performance does not get affected. The current JV could also trigger new conflicts and stress levels within the organisation where it is crucial that these issues are identified and resolved. The new management must take this opportunity to place greater prominence of recognizing the on-going stress levels within the organisation and deal with them appropriately. Improved management of conflict, negotiations and stress would benefit the individuals and the organisation in terms of high performing, content, dedicated employees who deliver results.

Wide Area Networks Essays -- Technology Computers Communication Essays

Wide Area Networks The creation of wide area networks links mass communication from people all over the world with a vast variety of different uses. â€Å"A wide area network is telecommunications networks covering a large geographic area.† The internet is the biggest example of a wide area network and has influenced our daily lives all around the world. Wide area networks are connected to local area networks to enable computers to share, send, and access information on a larger scale. These recent technologies over the past 20 years have affected the way we communicate, how businesses operate, and many other factors that we take for granted. Wide area networks are a fast growing telecommunications business which are developing new technologies to help people access information easier, faster with cheaper costs. Wide Area Networks and why, where, who, and how it important? â€Å"Wide area networks are used to connect local area networks together, so that users and computers in one location can communicate with users and computers in other locations. Many WANs are built for one particular organization and are private, others, built by Internet service providers provide connections from an organization’s LAN to the Internet.† WANs are usually built with leased lines from different telecommunications companies. At the end of these lines is a router which allows access and transmissions through these given lines. Through various telecommunications devices and services wide area networks are the leading technology in transmitting global information and communication. â€Å"The main purpose of a WAN is to provide reliable, fast and safe communication between two or more places with low delays and at low prices.† â€Å"WANs can be linke... ...nt to help influence the computer age into a bright, and much larger future. References Duley, CJ. WAN (2000) http://www.btinternet.com/~C.J.Duley/WAN.htm O’Brien, James A. (2004) Management Information Systems: Managing information technology in the business enterprise. Sixth Edition. McGraw Hill, Boston. Ploskina, Brian DNA Lends Hand to WANs http://www.eweek.com/article2/0,1759,1242507,00.asp?kc=EWNKT0209KTX1K0100440 August 28, 2001 Alliance Datacom: Wide Area Networks http://www.alliancedatacom.com/technologies/wide-area-network/wide-area-networks.asp Documentation. (2002) http://www.cisco.com/univercd/cc/td/doc/cisintwk/ito_doc/introwan.htm#xtocid8 Cisco Systems, Inc. Wikipedia: Wide Area Network. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wide_area_network Wireless Wide Area Networking Technologies (2004). http://www.rhowireless.com/wan/

Olympics Essay -- essays research papers

The Olympics The Olympics are a huge sporting event that contains many different sports and consists of many different countries from around the world. Back in ancient Greece is where the ancient Olympics originated. It was primarily a part of a religious festival in honor of Zeus the father of Greek Gods and Goddesses. The Olympics where held at the sanctuary of Zeus at Olympia, which is in Western Peloponnesos. From 776 BC, the games took place at Olympia every 4 years for almost 12 centuries. In 776 BC the only event was the Stadion Race that was a foot race 600 feet long, Koroibos, a cook from Elis, won it. Additional athletic events were gradually added until; by the 5th century BC it was a 5-day program that consisted of three foot races, the pentathlon, boxing, wrestling, pankration, and the hoplitodromos. The Greeks that came to the Sanctuary of Zeus at Olympia shared the same religious beliefs and spoke the same language. There where no females in the Olympics at this time so all the athletes where males who came from every corner of the Greek world, as far as Iberia in the West and the Black Sea in the East. Although the ancient games where staged in Olympia, from 776 BC through 393 AD, it took 1503 years for the Olympics to return. The first modern Olympic games took place in Athens Greece in 1896. The man responsible for the rebirth was a Frenchman named Baron Pierre De Coubertin, who presented the idea in 1894. His original idea was to present the modern games in 1900 in his hometown Paris. But others were so enthusiastic with the idea that they convinced him to move it to 1896 and have Athens host it. There were many great athletes throughout the history of the Olympics, But where some of the athletes worthy of earning a prize worth a hefty amount of money. This question has came about a numerous amount of times. But the word Athlete is a Greek word that means â€Å"one who competes for a prize† and is also related to the Greek words athlos meaning â€Å"contest† and athlon meaning â€Å"prize†. According to the Roman author Plutarch, an Olympic victor who was a citizen of Athens could expect to receive in the year 600 BC a cash reward of 500 drachmai, a literal fortune. Later in Hellenistic periods, pensions for athletes became more formalized and could actually be bought and sold. But were the ancient Olympics just for men? Along with the athletic conte... .... Summer Winter 1896-Athens 1924-Chamonix 1900-Paris 1928-St.Moritz 1904-St.Louis 1932-Lake Placid 1908-London 1936-Garmisch-Partenkirchen 1912-Stockholm 1948-St.Moritz 1920-Antwerp 1952-Oslo 1924-Paris 1956-Cortina d’Ampezzo 1928-Amsterdam 1960-Squaw Valley 1932-Los Angeles 1964-Innsbruck 1936-Berlin 1968- Grenoble 1948-London 1972-Sapporo 1952-Helsinki 1976-Innsbruck 1956-Melbourne 1980-Lake Placid 1960-Rome 1984-Sarajevo 1964-Tokyo 1988-Calgary 1968-Mexico City 1992-Albertville 1972-Munich 1994-Lillehammer 1976-Montreal 1998-Nagano 1980-Moscow 2002-Salt Lake City 1984-Los Angeles 1988-Seoul 1992-Barcelona 1996-Atlanta 2000-Sydney 2004-Athens   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   There is also statues up that are there to commemorate those who had been caught cheating or Bribing at the Olympic games. These were set up on the walkway leading from the heart of the altis to the vault that leads to the stadion, not by accident the path that leads to the entrance of the athletic competition.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Olympics are a great tradition and they will last a very long time just like its done in the past.

Dimensions of win win habit

Only by having a foundation of trust and a strong emotional bank account can I come o the table with honesty and openness. When both partners bring a strong emotional bank account to the table, we are ready to deal honestly and fairly. The third dimension is agreements. From relationships flow the agreements that give definition and direction to win/win. In a win/win agreement, both parties agree on desired results, guidelines, resources, accountability, and consequences. Trust and mutual responsibility is the key to a win/win agreement.Proper management training is key to establishing the mindset needed to effectively carry out win/win agreements. The focus in a win/vain agreement is on results rather than methods, and people in a win/win agreement evaluate themselves. As such, a performance agreement that both sides agree to is key to an effective win/win agreement. Finally, a win/win agreement can only survive in an organization when the systems support it. I know that I get what reward. Thus, I must make sure that the systems surrounding any win/win agreement support a win/win mentality.To achieve the goals in my mission statement, the reward system must reflect my principles. Competition has its place in the marketplace, but cooperation is the key to interdependent relationships. There is a four step process to seeking a win/win solution. First, I see the problem from the other person's point of view. Then, I identify the key issues and concerns involved. Third, I determine what results would constitute a fully acceptable solution. Finally, identify new options to achieve those results. Want to take advantage of the potential for mutual benefit that win/win solutions offer.I am ready to see any conflict that arises from a win/win perspective and seek the solution that ill be mutually satisfactory to all parties. There are five dimensions to the habit of thinking Win/Win; 1 . Character – Thinking win/win requires integrity (the value we place on our own principles) on the part of both parties. It also requires maturity – the balance between courage and consideration. Expressing feelings with courage tempered by consideration for the feelings of others is the mark of a mature person.Finally, to think win/win, we need an abundance mentality, meaning we realize there is plenty out there for everyone. People with a scarcity mentality think there is only one pie and they are fighting to get as large a slice as possible. People with an abundance mentality realize there are lots of opportunities, more than a person can take advantage of. 2. Relationships – The Emotional Bank Account is a key to structuring a Win/Win. If enough deposits have been made over a period of time, you have a degree of credibility enabling you to focus on the issues, not on personality conflicts.If both parties have high emotional bank balances combined with a ointment to Win/Win, a tremendous amount of synergy is possible. If the other person is not thinking Win/Win, you have to take the lead and be proactive enough to keep hammering until they realize you genuinely want a Win/Win deal. The relationship can be the key to the success of the entire process. 3. Agreements -? These give definition and direction to Win/Win. TO be effective, agreements should focus on desired results rather than the methods to be followed.Guidelines specifying the parameters for the results and the resources available to achieve the results should be included. Also a method of accountability for evaluation and an outline of what will happen as a result of the evaluation. 4. Systems -? Win/Win can only survive in an organization when the systems support it. If you talk Win/Win but reward Win/Lose, then don't be surprised when everyone goes for Win/Lose scenarios. The training, planning, budgeting, communication, information and compensation systems all have to be geared towards Win/Win. 5.Processes – The essence of structuring Wining is to separate the person from the problem, to focus on interests ND not on positions, to invent options for positive mutual gain and to insist on objective criteria – some external standard or principle that both parties can accept. These processes are more fully examined in Habits 5 and 6. The five dimensions of the Win/Win model s described by the author are: Character is the foundation Of Win/Win. There Ernst be integrity in order to establish trust in the relationship and to define a win in terms of personal values.A key trait is the abundance mentality that there is plenty for everybody (v. The Scarcity Mentality). The abundance mentality flows from a deep inner sense of personal worth and security. Relationships are the focus on Win/Win. When there is a relationship of trust and emotional bank account balances are high, there is a much greater probability of a successful, productive interaction. Negative energy focused on differences in personality or position is eliminated ; positive, cooperative energy focused on understanding and resolving issues is built. Performance agreements or partnership agreements give definition and direction to Win/Win.

Spanish Verbs That Mean to Ask

Spanish Verbs That Mean to Ask Spanish has several verbs that can be used to translate to ask. They are not all interchangeable, and there are some subtle differences in meaning among some of them. Among those verbs: Preguntar is the verb used most commonly to mean to ask a question or to ask about something. It is often followed by the preposition por to indicate the subject of the inquiry: Preguntà ³ por la situacià ³n legal de su hermano. He asked about his brothers legal situation. Pablo preguntaba por ti. Pablo was asking about you. Preguntà © si habà ­a estudiado la leccià ³n. I asked if she had studied the lesson. Preguntar is the verb used most often to indicate simply that a person had asked a question. -  ¿En quà © pgina est à ©l? - preguntà ³ Juana. What page is it on? Juana asked. Pedir is usually used to indicate a direct request or to ask for (rather than about) something. Like the English verb to request, it does not have to be followed by a preposition. Pidià ³ un coche azul. She asked for a blue car. Sà ³lo pedà ­ que repararan el techo. I only asked them to repair the roof.  ¿Te pidià ³ dinero? Did she ask you for money? Rogar can mean to formally ask or to make a formal request. And depending on the context, it can also mean to beg or to pray. Le rogamos que indique los nà ºmeros de telà ©fono completos. We request that you indicate the complete telephone number. Se ruegan los clientes que tomen las precauciones oportunas para salvaguardar sus pertenencias. Customers are asked to take appropriate precautions in order to protect their belongings. Te ruego que tengas piedad con mi madre. I beg you to have pity on my mother. Fueron a la iglesia para rogar. They went to the church to pray. Invitar can be used when asking someone to do something or go somewhere, much like the English cognate invite. Nunca he invitado a nadie a postear en mi blog. I never have asked anyone to post on my blog. Te invito a mi casa. I am asking you to my house. Solicitar can be used in much the same way as pedir, although it is less common and is most likely to be used with certain types of requests, such as for information, or in legal or business contexts. Solicitan amnistà ­a para ex presidente. They are asking for amnesty for the former president. Solicitaron sus opiniones profesionales sobre el proyecto. They are asking for his professional opinions about the project.

Ancient Egyptian and Greek Medicine, a Comparison Essays

Ancient Egyptian and Greek Medicine, a Comparison Essays Ancient Egyptian and Greek Medicine, a Comparison Essay Ancient Egyptian and Greek Medicine, a Comparison Essay Essay Topic: Love Medicine The Healers In this essay, we shall be comparing the progress of medicine in ancient Egypt and ancient Greece. We will explore the different factors contributing to the medical development of each civilisation and how they formed the basis for modern medical practice. Economy Egypt and Greece were agricultural empires. Egypt was one of the first to settle and farm the Nile. Good harvests from the rich silt meant that Egypt had enough food to trade with other Empires, like India, China, Arabia, Africa and around the Mediterranean. Trade (along with bringing back great wealth) brought back new ideas, among which were new herbs and treatments. Similarly, Greece was a trading nation, leading to communication in and between nations. Communication was vital for the progress of medicine because it allowed ideas to be shared between many different countries. The Egyptians were so successful with farming and trade that the land owners became very wealthy. Likewise, the Greeks had a wealthy upper class. This new class could afford to pay for health care by doctors, who were paid a great deal for their knowledge. They spent their lives trying to further their understanding of medicine, probably because the better they were, the more they got paid. So money plays a large part in the progress of medicine. The rich could afford to employ metal workers, to make jewellery and tools. These craftsmen could also make bronze instruments for doctors and physicians, much better than any tools before. The rich Greeks could also do this, but, the invention of iron and steel meant that the Greeks could do more with their tools as they were stronger. This must have helped the progression of practical medicine. Although the rich in both Egypt and Greece had doctors and were generally in good health (more so in Greece than Egypt). Both empires also had those that had virtually no medical care. Slaves, that were part of each civilisation, were on the most part in very poor health. Doctors wouldnt treat them because they couldnt pay, and normally they couldnt seek out other knowledgeable people because their movement was restricted. Slaves are an extreme example, the point being that even though the rich in both countries were getting healthier, in Egypt, the general population didnt benefit because they couldnt afford the treatment, this got only marginally better with the Greeks. War Both empires were affected by war. Doctors would join, becoming army physicians or surgeons and gaining practical field knowledge. Battles were places for trying theories and treatments, many procedures must have been invented, innovated or perfected there. One being amputation. A mixture of better tools due to the invention of iron/steel and trial and error meant the Greeks could amputate limbs with even the smallest chance of survival, where it was almost totally unknown for someone to survive an amputation, purposeful or not. Healers Specialist male doctors, priests and mothers/wives were all healers in both Egypt and Greece. Mothers/wives would take care of the day-to-day health of the family, the doctors charged high amounts to treat people. And the priests offered religious or supernatural treatments. The Egyptians though had female doctors, like Pesehet, 2649-2150BC Lady Overseer of Lady Physicians. The Greeks didnt have female doctors, saying; No slave or woman should learn the science of medicine. This was regression, because half the population was excluded from the advance of medicine. Religion Religion was both good and bad for the progression of medicine in Egypt and Greece. In Egypt, their faith was a strong belief in the need of your body in the afterlife. This led to the process of embalming. They would take various organs (such as the heart, liver and brain) out of the body and treat everything with herbs and spices, giving them a basic knowledge of anatomy. But the dissection of humans was disallowed in Both Greece and Egypt. In order for the Greeks to get knowledge of anatomy, they travelled to Alexandria (In Egypt, named after Alexander the Great when he conquered Egypt) where dissection was allowed. In both ages gods were said to cause and cure plagues and be in control of the weather. The Egyptians believed in good and evil spirits, wearing charms and using spells to keep away disease, give luck or find love. The Greeks had a God called Asclepius, god of healing. Temples dedicated to him were called Asclepions. These complexes had spacious, clean buildings, a stadium, gymnasium, baths and an Abaton where patients slept in the hopes that Asclepius and his daughters, Panacea and Hygeia would visit them and heal them. Because the Asclepion was such a comparatively clean and healthy place, these people often did get better and a miracle would be claimed. It was about this time that the Greeks said it was important to have a good diet and get exercise. In my opinion, these are linked. Religion did not cause medical knowledge to regress, in some cases, such as that of Egyptian embalming, it in fact helped medical knowledge progress. But on the most part, it held back progression as religious ideas often conflicted with scientific and medical theories. Theories The Egyptians were among the first civilisations to look at their surroundings for answers about things they did not understand, instead of looking to the gods for any explanations they might have needed. The largest life-giving source in Egypt was the Nile. The farms on the Niles flood plane used irrigation to take the water from the river over long distances to feed a large amount of land. If one of these channels got blocked, then the water could not reach a certain bit of land and the crop there would fail if the channel was left blocked. They applied this theory to humans. They believed that the heart was the most important organ in the body, which pumped air and water (carried by the blood) through around 40 channels to every part of the body. They believed that rotting food in the bowels gave off gasses that travelled along the channels, and sometimes blocked them, causing disease in different parts of the body. This was a big step forward compared to prehistoric times, as thi s was a natural cause for disease, not spiritual. In a similar way, the Greeks were keen observers of nature and had a natural cause for disease. They believed in the 4 humours which were; phlegm, blood, yellow bile and black bile. They believed if these humours remained balanced then the person would be healthy. But if the humours became unbalanced then the person would become ill. Along with the Theory of the 4 humours, came a belief in good diet, exercise and rest when ill, with the belief that this would keep the humours in balance. This tied in perfectly with the Greeks other observations: The 4 elements of earth, fire, air and water. The 4 seasons of autumn, summer, spring and winter. If you had a cold, then you had too much phlegm, phlegm watery and colds often occurred in winter. This seemed to be too much of a coincidence for the Greeks. The Greeks went to Alexandria to dissect human cadavers, this led to discovering for the first time that the brain controlled the body, this was very important as now the brain could be given the attention it needed in medicine. The theory of the 4 humours was very important. On it, many treatments were based, and no one could come up with a better theory on how the body worked for over a 1000 years. Comparing the two theories, the Egyptian channels and the Greek 4 humours. I would say that it is hard to tell which is more important. As we now know they were both incorrect, yet still, both on the same lines of natural explanation. It seems to me that the Greeks theories show progression on the Egyptian theories. It is linked in with a complex theory; the 4 humours, 4 seasons, 4 elements. It led to more effective treatments such as purging. It led to good ideas such as healthy diet and exercise, and it influenced the way people thought about medicine until over 1000 years later. Treatments Egyptians could perform rudimentary surgery, such as setting broken bones. The Greeks made some progress, in that they could perform amputation and that they had better instruments due to the invention of iron and steel. Both civilisations had new uses of herbs, from careful observation of their environment and from trade with other countries. The Greeks believed in observation of a patient; examining all excretions in order to diagnose the illness and give a prognosis. Through more careful observation, the Greek doctor could provide better treatment for his patient. The Egyptians did not do this. In Egypt, common treatments involved a mixture of religious and practical medicine. For instance: Cure for Cataracts: Mix brain-of-tortoise with honey. Place on the eye and say: There is a shouting in the southern sky in darkness, there is an uproar in the northern sky, the Hall of Pillars falls into the waters. The crew of the sun god bent their oars so that the heads at his side fall into the water, who leads hither and what he finds? I lead forth what I find. I lead forth your heads. I lift up your necks. I fasten what has been cut from you in its place. I lead you forth to drive away the god of Fevers and all possible deadly arts. (Taken from the Ebers Papyrus). The Greeks relied much less on religious cures and more on the practical. They used wine and vinegar as basic antiseptics, where the Egyptians used honey, or raw meat. Again the Greeks seem to be more advanced than the Egyptians, with more advanced/practical treatments. Technology The Egyptians invented a from of paper called papyrus made from reeds. They also innovated a quicker form of writing called hieroglyphics. These, together with their wide trade system, meant that communication was easier than it ever had been before. Plus information could be passed easily between generations. This aided the progression of medicine a great deal as physicians, surgeons and doctors could share knowledge easily over large distances. Examples of these are the Ebers and Smith Papyri. The Ebers papyrus is roughly 3600 years old, the Smith papyrus being written about 100 years before. They are medical papyri, giving us an invaluable insight into the medicine of the time. If now, we can still gain knowledge from Egyptian papyri, then it must have also been of great use at the time. The Greeks took learning very seriously, with schools and universities for maths, astronomy, philosophy and healing. Their manner of studying their environment was an innovation in itself and their Asclepions could be considered as the first hospitals. Although the Greeks were more progressed with technology than the Egyptians, I believe the Egyptians made more progress, with the Greeks following on after them, and expanding the knowledge. Key Figures Imhotep: Imhotep was the earliest record physician in Egypt, wazir to king Zoser who founded the Third Dynasty. He was an astronomer, physician and an architect that may well have built the first pyramid of Saqqara. After his death he was worshiped as a hero, a blameless physician and much later as the god of medicine The prototype of Asclepius. Although we dont know much more about him, the Egyptians certainly liked him enough that he became a god, and it is interesting to see how Egyptian ideas, even of a singular person can be passed on to later civilisations such as Greece, and therefore Rome. Hippocrates: Hippocrates was one of the most important thinkers of all time, born in Greece around 460BC. In the field of medicine, he wrote many books on treatments and theories of the time, he developed the idea of humours, although this was wrong, it affected the way people were treated for centuries. He encouraged people to look for natural explanations for illness and other things, rather than religious ones and he championed the use of observing and recording symptoms with patients to aid diagnosis and prognosis. Ultimately his influence was to affect the way medicine was practised for thousands of years to come up to the present day. Conclusion Overall the Greeks made more medical progress than the Egyptians. When you compare different aspects of medicine between the two civilisations they each have made more progress than the other in certain areas. The Egyptians made greater progress in the role of healers (specifically women), and with technology, and the Greeks made greater progress in their economy, theories, treatments and the way religion affected medicine advancement. The Egyptians were the first to begin medical theorising because they were the first major, organised, civilisation. They revolutionised prehistoric medical thinking and provided a basis for future medical progress. They began with very poor medical knowledge and ended with relatively effective treatments. The Greeks began with some of the Egyptian knowledge and developed some very important theories which led to better treatment and upon which the basis of modern scientific thinking was built. Perhaps if they hadnt excluded women from medical practice, their progress would have been even greater.

Biography of Stephen Biko, Anti-Apartheid Activist

Biography of Stephen Biko, Anti-Apartheid Activist Steve Biko (Born Bantu Stephen Biko; December 18, 1946–September 12, 1977) was one of South Africas most significant political activists and a leading founder of South Africas Black Consciousness Movement. His death in police detention in 1977 led to his being hailed a martyr of the anti-apartheid struggle. Fast Facts: Stephen Bantu (Steve) Biko Known For:  Prominent anti-apartheid activist, writer, founder of Black Consciousness Movement, considered a martyr after his death in a Pretoria prisonAlso Known As:  Bantu Stephen Biko, Steve Biko, Frank Talk (pseudonym)Born:  December 18, 1946 in King Williams Town, Eastern Cape, South AfricaParents: Mzingaye Biko and Nokuzola Macethe DunaDied:  September 12, 1977 in a Pretoria prison cell, South AfricaEducation: Lovedale College, St Francis College, University of Natal Medical SchoolPublished Works:  I Write What I like: Selected Writings by Steve Biko, The Testimony of Steve BikoSpouses/Partners: Ntsiki Mashalaba, Mamphela RampheleChildren: 2Notable Quote: The blacks are tired of standing at the touchlines to witness a game that they should be playing. They want to do things for themselves and all by themselves. Early Life and Education Stephen Bantu Biko was born on December 18, 1946, into a Xhosa  family. His father Mzingaye Biko worked as a policeman and later as a clerk in the King William’s Town Native Affairs office. His father achieved part of a university education through the University of South Africa (UNISA), the distance-learning university, but he died before completing his law degree. After his fathers death, Bikos mother Nokuzola Macethe Duna supported the family as a cook at Greys Hospital. From an early age, Steve Biko showed an interest in anti-apartheid politics. After being expelled from his first school, Lovedale College in the Eastern Cape, for anti-establishment behavior, he was transferred to St. Francis College, a Roman Catholic boarding school in Natal. From there he enrolled as a student at the University of Natal Medical School (in the universitys Black Section). While at medical school, Biko became involved with the National Union of South African Students (NUSAS). The union was dominated by white liberals and failed to represent the needs of black students. Dissatisfied, Biko resigned in 1969 and founded the South African Students Organisation (SASO). SASO was involved in providing legal aid and medical clinics, as well as helping to develop cottage industries for disadvantaged black communities. Biko and Black Consciousness In 1972 Biko was one of the founders of the Black Peoples Convention (BPC), working on social upliftment projects around Durban. The BPC effectively brought together roughly 70 different black consciousness groups and associations, such as the South African Students Movement (SASM), which later played a significant role in the 1976 uprisings, the National Association of Youth Organisations, and the Black Workers Project, which supported black workers whose unions were not recognized under the apartheid regime. Biko was elected as the first president of the BPC and was promptly expelled from medical school. He started working full-time for the Black Community Programme (BCP) in Durban, which he also helped found. Banned by the Apartheid Regime In 1973 Steve Biko was banned by the apartheid government. Under the ban, Biko was restricted to his hometown of Kings Williams Town in the Eastern Cape. He could no longer support the Black Community Programme in Durban, but he was able to continue working for the Black Peoples Convention. From King Williams Town, he helped set up the Zimele Trust Fund which assisted political prisoners and their families. Despite the ban, Biko was elected Honorary President of the BPC in January 1977. Detention Biko was detained and interrogated four times between August 1975 and September 1977 under Apartheid era anti-terrorism legislation. On August 21, 1977, Biko was detained by the Eastern Cape security police and held in Port Elizabeth. From the Walmer police cells, he was taken for interrogation at the security police headquarters. According to the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of South Africa  report, on September 7, 1977, Biko sustained a head injury during interrogation, after which he acted strangely and was uncooperative. The doctors who examined him (naked, lying on a mat and manacled to a metal grille) initially disregarded overt signs of neurological injury. Death By September 11, Biko had slipped into a continual semi-conscious state and the police physician recommended a transfer to hospital. Biko was, however, transported 1,200 kilometers to Pretoria- a 12-hour journey which he made lying naked in the back of a Land Rover. A few hours later, on September 12, alone and still naked, lying on the floor of a cell in the Pretoria Central Prison, Biko died from brain damage. The Apartheid Governments Response South African Minister of Justice James (Jimmy) Kruger initially suggested Biko had died of a hunger strike and said that his death left him cold. The hunger strike story was dropped after local and international media pressure, especially from Donald Woods, the editor of the East London Daily Dispatch. It was revealed in the inquest that Biko had died of brain damage, but the magistrate failed to find anyone responsible. He ruled that Biko had died as a result of injuries sustained during a scuffle with security police while in detention. An Anti-Apartheid Martyr The brutal circumstances of Bikos death caused a worldwide outcry and he became a martyr and symbol of black resistance to the oppressive apartheid regime. As a result, the South African government banned a number of individuals (including Donald Woods) and organizations, especially those Black Consciousness groups closely associated with Biko. The United Nations Security Council responded by finally imposing an arms embargo against South Africa. Bikos family sued the state for damages in 1979 and settled out of court for R65,000 (then equivalent to $25,000). The three doctors connected with Bikos case were initially exonerated by the South African Medical Disciplinary Committee. It was not until a second inquiry in 1985, eight years after Bikos death, that any action was taken against them. The police officers responsible for Bikos death applied for amnesty during the Truth and Reconciliation Commission hearings, which sat in Port Elizabeth in 1997. The Biko family did not ask the Commission to make a finding on his death. The Truth and Reconciliation Commission of South Africa report, published by Macmillan in March 1999, said of Bikos death: The Commission finds that the death in detention of Mr Stephen Bantu Biko on 12 September 1977 was a gross human rights violation. Magistrate Marthinus Prins found that the members of the SAP were not implicated in his death. The magistrates finding contributed to the creation of a culture of impunity in the SAP. Despite the inquest finding no person responsible for his death, the Commission finds that, in view of the fact that Biko died in the custody of law enforcement officials, the probabilities are that he died as a result of injuries sustained during his detention. Legacy In 1987, Biko’s story was chronicled in the film  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Cry Freedom.† The hit song Biko, by Peter Gabriel, honored Steve Bikos legacy in 1980. Stephen Biko remains a model and hero in the struggle for autonomy and self-determination for people around the world. His writings, his life work, and his tragic death were all historically crucial to the momentum and success of the South African anti-apartheid movement. Nelson Mandela called Biko the spark that lit a veld fire across South Africa. Sources Mangcu, Xolela. Biko, A Biography. Tafelberg, 2012.Sahoboss. â€Å"Stephen Bantu Biko.†Ã‚  South African History Online, 4 Dec. 2017.Woods, Donald. Biko. Paddington Press, 1978.

Assess Mill's contribution to the philosophical understanding of the Essay

Assess Mill's contribution to the philosophical understanding of the value of individuality - Essay Example Throughout the paper, a detailed discussion will critically evaluate Mill’s contribution to the philosophical understanding to the value of individuality by examining key issues of debate, such as the context of both civil society and civil liberty, the elements of well-being, and an inquiry into social limits or constraints placed over an individual by means of laws and authority figures. In the course of On Liberty, Mill states two principles of demarcation. Although Mill raises serious objections to his first principle that suggests that the â€Å"only legitimate grounds for social coercion is to prevent someone from doing harm to others† (Mill, 1978, xv), he then suggests its defect by illustrating a second principle of demarcation. Although stating objections to his own principles, Mill attempts to allow the reader to appreciate the problem that he is addressing and to participate in his critical inquiry. (Mill, 1978, xvi) The basic subject of his essay remains a philosophical necessity, as it explains the â€Å"nature and limits of the power which can be legitimately exercised by society over the individual†. (Mill, 1978, 1) As Mill remains a figure of direct contribution, his inquiries uncover the struggle between liberty and authority. Specifically, through a historical context, Mill’s contribution finds itself dealing with the earliest an d most familiar area of authority, particularly in that of Greece, Rome, and England. (Mill, 1978, 1) Accordingly, the liberty of an individual associates its meaning as â€Å"the protection against the tyranny of the political rulers.† (Mill, 1978, 1) Mill assesses the idea of society and its ability to execute wrong mandates instead of right, in which he claims it â€Å"practices a social tyranny† because it objects to the formation of any individuality that may form as a result of independent ideas and practices. (Mill, 1978, 1) Mill continues to debate

The Role of Journalism, Mass Media and Communication in Politics Term Paper

The Role of Journalism, Mass Media and Communication in Politics - Term Paper Example The politicians have mostly used and utilized digital tools legally and illegally with the aim to chase political goals as hacktivists. Hacktivists are the online activity of the special kind that does not generally obey the order. This is to mean that in the digital world, they portray civil disobedience. This idea of hacktivism can be applied by the politicians to the view of digital activists. Online civil disobedience is also encapsulated on this. For various political reasons, activists may behave disobedient in the digital world. These online activists exercise their basic right to freedom of expression and assembly. Politicians can raise various issued or inform the public on certain issues that are happening in the ruling government that may be heating the public. Issues like corruption in the government may be raised by the politicians without being identified through the internet so that the public might provide their opinion. The unique feature of anonymous is the fact that it does not poses a political opinion that is uniform with the apparent omission of the idea of the internets absolute freedom. For an instant, no payment is to be allowed in the opinion provided, no censorship and filtration. There is decentralization of communication over abroad supply of the channels of communication, this includes, mailing list, image boards, and the channels of IRC. Since there is the distribution of information and the people participating are having an opinion that is diverse, there can not be a spokesman or a leader. In short, both the non-digital and the digital protest can at the same time come from anonymous (Slobbe & Verberkt, 2012). The anonymous statement should always be questioned because there are higher possibilities that the statement might not be true. The main method of anonymous entails a target specification and the use of the DDoS method for taking it down while asking for more participants on the internet.     

Muslim Sunni Mosque Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Muslim Sunni Mosque - Essay Example I had been told by my Sunni acquaintances that this was the oldest and the grandest Muslim Sunni Mosque in California. It had been built in 1984 through a trust fund which a Saudi Arabian woman had set up in 1977 for this specific purpose. When visiting her children who were studying in LA, she discovered that there was no mosque in the area, where Sunnis could pray and congregate. Therefore, she decided to donate the money required to establish a mosque which would act as a place of prayer, a center for religious instruction and advise and a social and cultural community center for Sunnis. As I approached the mosque, one of the very first things which struck me was its grandness. Surrounded by iron gates and located in the center of a rather large piece of land, the mosque was quite imposing. Nevertheless, it did not attract my attention because it was, in any way, different from Shia architecture or more impressive than Shia mosques but because this was LA. Upon entering the mosque, I felt a sense of familiarity, meaning that I felt that I was entering a Muslim place of worship and not a Sunni one which was foreign to me as a Shi'ite. As it was just half an hour before the call for the Friday noon prayers, most of the Muslims were in the washrooms performing the ritual cleansing, woodu. Here I noticed a difference.

Position summary letter(supply chain major) Essay

Position summary letter(supply chain major) - Essay Example At the Bayer health care, I would be using those skills to manage the supply chain at an international scale and ensure that the organization’s reputations and profit are taken to another level. On the other hand, at HighJump, those skills would be used to initiate and implement projects to ensure that there is effective service provision need a proper network is established between the organization and its stakeholders. Bayer healthcare (BHC) conducts research and manufactures new therapeutic products and uses scientific technology to create better living conditions for both humans and animals. Research and development is focused on cardiology, women's health care and diagnostic imaging. The company aims at filling the gaps left by other medical and pharmaceutical providers to ensure that its impact is felt by those who really require their services. The company is also supported by manufacturers in different countries who depend on its products to ensure quality and cost-eff ective of its products globally. Responsibilities include initiating activities that will ensure timely and effective supply of the manufactured products to the market place. Thus, the suitable person is expected to be updated on changing demands and improvements in the market as well as within the industry. To liaise with global supply chain systems and synergies to smoothen business deals, reduce costs and ensure that the targeted returns are attained through effectiveness. In addition, the person is expected to provide leadership and have excellent interpersonal relations so that different employee contributions can be recognized and appreciated. Thus, the manager is expected to lead by example through showing accountability both at personal and professional level. The manager will ensure effective communication with the company executives, staff and other stakeholders to the global level to ensure that information is disseminated in a timely and effective manner. My qualificatio ns that make me a suitable and competitive candidate for the position include: I am pursuing a bachelors degree in supply chain and this has equipped me with the necessary knowledge to understand procurement operations. In addition, I have a good understanding of SAP and supply chain management of the knowledge I have gained in my course. I have good leadership and interpersonal skills which I will use to enhance collaboration and ensure that there is transparency in the organization. Moreover, I have good human resource management skills which will come in handy to enhance talent acquisition and creation of international partnerships with the organization's stakeholders. I have good communication skills both oral and written which will enhance communication of both complex and simple issues with the staff and other stakeholders. High jump supply chain management software necessitates the flow of information and inventory in a cost effective and timely manner. The organizationâ€⠄¢s aim to meet market and customer needs through the provision of logistic services, packaging, healthcare, distribution and manufacturing of goods. The company enables its business partners and clients to access their services at low cost and minimizes ownership costs. The company establishes a working relationship with its clients through creating sessions to allow for interactive

Assess the importance of Kerensky, Trotsky and Lenin in the outcome of Essay - 1

Assess the importance of Kerensky, Trotsky and Lenin in the outcome of the February and October revolutions of 1917 - Essay Example 12). In 1912, Kerensky was elected to become a member of the Fourth Duma in which he represented the Trudoviks. Kerensky was an active member in both camps of the Petrograd Soviet and the provisional government. It is worth noting that initially he was used as a bridge between the two principal bodies. During his time in the provisional government, he was the minister for justice, war, and became the prime minister later in his career (Acton, Cherniaev, & Rosenberg, 1997, p. 56). On the other hand, Lenin believed that Kerensky was not taking the Russians to the right direction and as a result, he used the Bolshevik party to engage the people in a revolution. The Russians were against the First World War and they thought that the Tsars were not fighting for their rights. When Lenin got the control of the government, he became more tyrannical than any other ruler in the history of Russia. This is despite the fact that the Russians believed that Lenin would fight for the rights of the common citizen (Kennan, 1989, p. 194). Strikes, food riots and the ensuing war made Russia ungovernable. When Lenin arrived by train from Switzerland, he was against the war and could not stomach Kerensky because he thought that he was not for reforms. Lenin mobilized the people and especially the army by promising them economic reforms and ending the war. Leon Trotsky was born by the name of Lev Davidovich Bronshtein and he initially supported Meshevik Internationalists. Prior to October Revolution, which occurred in 1917, he had joined the Bolshevik Party. He went ahead and became a prominent leader of the Bolshevik party. Despite the fact that he supported people and workers, he was later removed from power by the rise of Josef Stalin. By the time the February Revolution erupted during 1917 spring, Kerensky was among the most vocal leaders for the revolution. The fact that he was an

Position summary letter(supply chain major) Essay

Position summary letter(supply chain major) - Essay Example At the Bayer health care, I would be using those skills to manage the supply chain at an international scale and ensure that the organization’s reputations and profit are taken to another level. On the other hand, at HighJump, those skills would be used to initiate and implement projects to ensure that there is effective service provision need a proper network is established between the organization and its stakeholders. Bayer healthcare (BHC) conducts research and manufactures new therapeutic products and uses scientific technology to create better living conditions for both humans and animals. Research and development is focused on cardiology, women's health care and diagnostic imaging. The company aims at filling the gaps left by other medical and pharmaceutical providers to ensure that its impact is felt by those who really require their services. The company is also supported by manufacturers in different countries who depend on its products to ensure quality and cost-eff ective of its products globally. Responsibilities include initiating activities that will ensure timely and effective supply of the manufactured products to the market place. Thus, the suitable person is expected to be updated on changing demands and improvements in the market as well as within the industry. To liaise with global supply chain systems and synergies to smoothen business deals, reduce costs and ensure that the targeted returns are attained through effectiveness. In addition, the person is expected to provide leadership and have excellent interpersonal relations so that different employee contributions can be recognized and appreciated. Thus, the manager is expected to lead by example through showing accountability both at personal and professional level. The manager will ensure effective communication with the company executives, staff and other stakeholders to the global level to ensure that information is disseminated in a timely and effective manner. My qualificatio ns that make me a suitable and competitive candidate for the position include: I am pursuing a bachelors degree in supply chain and this has equipped me with the necessary knowledge to understand procurement operations. In addition, I have a good understanding of SAP and supply chain management of the knowledge I have gained in my course. I have good leadership and interpersonal skills which I will use to enhance collaboration and ensure that there is transparency in the organization. Moreover, I have good human resource management skills which will come in handy to enhance talent acquisition and creation of international partnerships with the organization's stakeholders. I have good communication skills both oral and written which will enhance communication of both complex and simple issues with the staff and other stakeholders. High jump supply chain management software necessitates the flow of information and inventory in a cost effective and timely manner. The organizationâ€⠄¢s aim to meet market and customer needs through the provision of logistic services, packaging, healthcare, distribution and manufacturing of goods. The company enables its business partners and clients to access their services at low cost and minimizes ownership costs. The company establishes a working relationship with its clients through creating sessions to allow for interactive

Summarizing and Paraphrasing Activity Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Summarizing and Paraphrasing Activity - Essay Example In understanding the case, despite unanimous support from the protestors, only Johnson was identified for criminal proceedings and found guilty by the court. The amendment of the 1968 statute to make it neutral by passing the Flag Protection Act of 1989', Congress had manipulated the First Amendment to its advantage. Johnson was charged under the desecration of a venerated object in violation of Texas Penal Code Ann. Sec. 42.09 (a) (3) (1989). When he went on appeal against this verdict in the Court of Appeals for the Fifth District of Texas at Dallas, the court affirmed Johnson's conviction. The matter was taken to the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals, which reversed the judgment stating that the State could not, consistent with the First Amendment, punish Johnson for burning the flag in these circumstances (Thomas-Library of Congress, http://thomas.loc.gov- Thomas) Fast food has been a bane on American society. The craze for fast food has only added to the worries of the US Health Department. Obese is a curse on society. With more and more outlets attracting the various strata of society, health related problems have been eating into the national coffer.

The existence of high commitment management in unionized workplaces Essay Example for Free

The existence of high commitment management in unionized workplaces Essay The existence of high commitment management in unionized workplaces suggests that such management is compatible with trade unionism. Discuss The relationship between workers and management has historically been an adversarial one. In the process of fighting for employee right and benefits, unions have traditionally created a them and us atmosphere between employees and managers. On the other hand, high commitment management tries to eliminate the them and us atmosphere and instead attempts to replace it with one of partnership where both employees and management work together for the benefit of the firm. Thus, the respective natures of high commitment establishments and unions would imply incompatibility. It is due to this belief that some high commitment firms devote enormous resources to strategies aimed to keep unions away from their firms such as hiring lawyers who specialize in union avoidance and implementing high commitment work practices such as grievance systems and work teams. However, there is a paradox to this belief as studies show that as compared with non-unionized firms, unionized firms in high commitment establishments provide more rights and benefits to workers, give more opportunities to employees to give and receive information, and give a greater voice to employees to voice either constructive suggestion or dissent (WERS 1992). Furthermore, union presence is increasingly popular in HRM organizations, as union density is 47% in organizations which employ at least half of the identified high commitment management practices. In this paper, I will use evidence from various studies to show why high commitment firms and unions are indeed compatible. High commitment management is based on the theory that firms who give more High commitment management is based on the theory that firms who give more to their workforce get back more from it in return. This requires a cooperative relationship based on trust and reciprocity between labor and management. Unions can help in solidifying a high commitment environment by policing management to ensure that certain high commitment goals are met. Unions in high commitment work environments fight to give employees a collective voice in decision making as well as enhancing distributive and procedural justice while in return improving workforce solidarity and aiding in legitimizing change. Thus, the compatibility between management and unions can increase the payoffs of both management and labor while allowing the firm to firm to be driven forward. In the fast pace, ever changing corporate world, responsiveness to change and flexibility within firms are oftentimes required so that firm can readily adapt to ever-changing times. Recent times have seen an increasing amount of firms moving away from traditional authoritarian ways of management towards that of high commitment human resource management. Such drastic changes in work practicess however, are not always easily implemented because a lack of communication between the workforce and managers makes it hard to change the character of employment relationships. Unions however, can aid in making such changes by allowing firms to communicate to the entire workforce quickly and efficiently while giving the workforce the opportunity to respond with input or inquiries. This increases the workforces knowledge and understanding of the new direction that their firm is taking and improves the probability that they will facilitate rather than resist future changes. Such was the case with Tesco, who realized that its inflexible employee involvement structure, as well as its high turnover, relatively low pay and a hands on directive management style were inconsistent with achieving enhanced levels of service to advance in competitive strategy. 1 Tesco wanted their employees to identify with and commit themselves to the company, and it saw the union Usdaw as the means for cultivating and realizing this goal. As a result a partnership between Tesco and Usdaw was formed where Usdaw gave up their strike threat in return for a greater union input to secure improved policy implementations. As a result, employee wages rose, terms and working conditions were improved and staff turnover dropped significantly.2 . Thus, this partnership took a step away from an us and them environment and took one towards unions working with management as team for the benefit of the entire firm. High commitment management is greatly dependent on a partnership between employees and management. This assumes that there arent agency problems because it is expected that employees have a deep understanding of the firms interests and that they go about their job as if those interests were their own. In order for the partnership between employees and management to flourish however, a workforce must have a collective voice in decision-making. Firms encounter many problems when trying to give individual workers decision-making authority. For instance, there is always the fear that a worker will abuse his decision-making authority by using it to further his own ends rather than to help the entire firm advance. Another problem is that it is extremely difficult to have a partnership between management and a fragmented workforce. Unions however facilitate a partnership by providing a channel of communication between management and the entire workforce. 3 This enhanced communication is made possible by unions because just as management speaks with single voice, having a union allows the employees it represents to speak to management with a unified voice. Thus unions give their members decision making authority by taking into account the needs of the workforce and communicating it to managers. As a result, there is an improved match between what employees want and what they get from management and this is an important ingredient in high commitment environments. Allowing workers to have a say in how their firm is managed increases their job satisfaction and is a major reason why on average, turnover is lower in union settings.4 In addition, unions tend to fight more for the benefits of employees with longer tenures in firms. This gives union members an increased incentive to commit themselves to their firm in the long term and also may be a factor contributing to lower turnover. This is compatible with high commitment management strategy in many occupations such as teaching and nursing where goals such as low turnover and worker longevity are important. However, any high commitment based partnership can break down if there is a lack of trust and accountability. Unions though can be trusted by management to act cooperatively because managers know that union officials want to protect their unions reputation with a particular firm and oftentimes this concern for its reputation can be the guarantee that management needs of good, constructive behavior5. In addition, a long-term partnership between unions and management can permit a greater degree of trust and objectivity than can the partnership between management and individual workers. This is because there is a greater frequency of interactions between management and a union. The partnerships experience in collectively dealing with past disputes makes it possible for future disputes to be settled in a promptly in a way that doesnt disturb work practices. This partnership also presents a checks and balance system to ensure that both parties act cooperatively. Just as a union is a party that can be held accountable for the actions of its members6, management can also be held responsible for bad behavior of any single manager. For instance, if a manager is engaging in an activity that the workforce views unfavorably, a union representative can give notice to management to put an end it before it goes too far. One of the biggest obstacles not permitting employees from fully committing themselves to a high commitment firm is if they perceive there to be unjustified unequal treatment. This can decrease employee performance incentives as well as hurt the morale of a high commitment firm. Unions however, have a sword of justice effect and are successful in eliminating many of the adverse affects that occur because of unequal employment opportunities. A major reason for this is that unionized can better monitor firm practices to ensure fairness because they are much more likely to have managers and supervisors who are trained in people management skills and in addition, managers in unionized firms put a greater emphasis on ensuring that there is equal treatment among their employees. Studies indicate that when taking into account workplaces where all the supervisors are required to have training in people management skills, 20% of those in unionized environments, [as] compared with only 12% of those in non-unionized places, have responsibility for equal opportunities.7 Two of the most common and documented forms of unequal opportunities are employee promotions and employee selection. When compared to non-unionized firms, firms with a union presence are four times as likely to monitor promotions by gender and three times as likely to review selection procedures to identify indirect discrimination.8. There is also evidence that the increased monitoring in unionized firms has helped reduce sexual discrimination as it regards to promotions and this has thus helped women advance up firms hierarchy. Studies indicate that about one in seven managers in the union sector reported that the proportion of women in the managerial post had risen markedly in the last 5 years; [while] only one in ten managers in the non-union sector reported this. 9 Furthermore, unions have also traditionally been seen as defenders of an egalitarian pay structure. High commitment work environments value and oftentimes even require worker solidarity. However, when some workers are paid more than others for essentially the same job, the existence of this solidarity is difficult to maintain. A union presence in a high commitment work environments facilitates the presence of solidarity as they prefer to pay each occupational group a single rate. This takes the wages out of competition among co-workers, and ensures that the high-commitment working environment wont be harmed due to ruthless competition practices such as undercutting between co-workers. Thus unionized workers have less wage inequality than their non-unionized counterparts. Studies indicate that the standard deviation is .457 in unionized setting [while it is] .592 in a non-union setting.10 Furthermore, unions help decrease wage inequality by 2.6% between males and females, 1.4% between blacks and whites, .6% between the healthy and those with health problems, and 3.1% between non-manual and manual employees.11. Thus by ensuring that firms pay equal wages for equal work, unions help maintain workforce solidarity which aids firms in maintaining high commitment work environments. In recent years, it had become apparent that the relationship between firms and unions doesnt necessarily have to be an adversarial one. In fact, the popularity of partnerships in high commitment firms indicates that the two institutions are indeed compatible. The evidence stated above indicates that when this partnership is properly utilized, unions can be a great asset to a high commitment management work design. This is because unions facilitate the existence of many of the necessary ingredients that go into high commitment work environments such as flexibility, increased employee voice in decision making, distributive justice, and worker solidarity. Major firms such as Tesco have recently taken advantage of this compatibility and are now realizing the formerly untapped benefits that a partnership between unions and high commitment management schemes can bring about. 1 Industrial Relations Services Partnership delivers the goods at Tesco, IRS Employment Review, August 1999, No. 662 2 Industrial Relations Services Partnership delivers the goods at Tesco, IRS Employment Review, August 1999, No. 662 3 Fernie, Sue. HRM Lecture on 29/01/02 : London: London School of Economics, 2001 4 Baron, James N. , Kreps David M. Strategic Human Resources: Frameworks for General Managers. (New York: John Wiley Sons, Inc., 1999), 127 5 Baron, James N. , Kreps David M. Strategic Human Resources: Frameworks for General Managers. (New York: John Wiley Sons, Inc., 1999), 134 6 Baron, James N. , Kreps David M. Strategic Human Resources: Frameworks for General Managers. (New York: John Wiley Sons, Inc., 1999), 134 7 Fernie, Sue Gray, Helen Women what unions can do for you CentrePiece Summer 2000 8 Fernie, Sue Gray, Helen Women what unions can do for you CentrePiece Summer 2000 9 Fernie, Sue Gray, Helen Women what unions can do for you CentrePiece Summer 2000 10 Metcalf, David Fighting for equality CentrePiece Summer 2000 11 Metcalf, David Fighting for equality CentrePiece Summer 2000

Functions of Modal Verbs in European and British Legal Documents

Functions of Modal Verbs in European and British Legal Documents Functions of Modal Verbs in European and British Legal Documents Abstract: Researches in languages for special purposes have qualified legal texts as a distinctive type of texts. The purpose of this study is to describe linguistic features of modal verbs which were found in different types of legal writing and to examine the reasons for their use. In this paper I will try to compare the use of modal verbs in European Directives and British Statutes and to investigate the expression of obligation in legal texts such as contracts which are texts which lay down the obligations and the rights of the parties to the contract. Key words: coherence, obligation, modality, legislation, variety, statement, behaviour. Modal Verbs in Contract Law There are different types of legal writing. According to their purpose there are operative legal documents, expository documents and persuasive documents. Legal language is widely spread in all areas of social life and it can be combined with language from different domains. The function of the law is double: regulative and constitutive. The legal genre represents a sublanguage which includes a wide range of texts and situational patterns. The legal genre contains a variety of sub-genres such as statutes, conventions and contracts. There are different ways of expressing obligation in legal English. Legal documents may prohibit certain actions, may confer rights or create obligations, may permit or authorize certain actions. Therefore, there are four types of legal rules: authorizations, obligations, prohibitions and permissions. There are certain rules used in legal language to formulate these rules nut these are not subject to grammar rules but to drafting principles. The present study will focus on the investigation of grammatical ways of expressing obligation through the use of modal verbs. The textual organisation of a contract contains the following elements: title, introduction, recitals, and definitions, body of the documents, provisions, signatures and dates. The contract law developed in the 19th century and derives from the principles which characterized the Industrial Revolution. Nevertheless, the origins of contract law are much more ancient than that and are to be found in the early common law of the Middle Ages. The main preoccupation of society at that time was land ownership and law developed very quickly in relation to the protection of ownership of land or of interests in land. As a result, the law of that time was also mainly concerned with property rights. The distinction that the law drew in terms of identifying the enforceability of rights was between formal agreements and informal ones. A formal agreement was one made in writing and which was authenticated by the practice of ‘sealing. This is the origin of the deed, which was the method accepte d for transfer of land and interests in land up to 1989, when the requirement to complete the document by the process of sealing was relaxed in favour of the already common practice of witnessing the document. Narrative contracts often contain ambiguities (e.g., conflicts and gaps) and these must be avoided or at least the conflicts arising from them resolved. Furthermore, there may be complex interdependencies between contract clauses that can be hard to track down. The content of the contract has to be in conformity with the legal framework and it forces the parties to involve themselves in politeness strategies in order to avoid the face threatening acts. The modal verbs occurring in contracts have double or triple functions and this applies to the modals shall, will, can and must. The modal will may be used to express either an obligation or a prediction, may and can express permission or possibility while must may express obligation (deontic use) or logical necessity. The strategies placing the parties to the contract under some kind of obligation are the most frequently used directives in English contracts. In order to express obligation in a contract the modal shall is used and expresses the illocutionary force of an order: â€Å"The distributor shall pay commission on a quarterly basis†¦Ã¢â‚¬  The regulation of behaviour in a contract can be made by issuing prohibitions and here the modal verb shall is used again: â€Å"The Representative shall not be entitled to enter into any contract or obligation on behalf of the Company without the express written consent of the Company being first obtained†. Statements of permission issued by some authority are usually conveyed with the help of the modal verb may: â€Å"The employer may determine the hiring at any time by giving one months previous notice in writing†¦Ã¢â‚¬  The contract also stipulates the limitations of liability and the assignment of benefits which are expressed with the help of shall. In this case the most frequently used verbs in connection with the auxiliary shall are: entitle, relieve, accept, have power, etc. In the language of contracts shall represents the principal means of expressing obligations. Obligations and intentions are the main aspects dealing with a contract. The modals shall and will have each been used to express modal meanings and to mark future time. But shall is rarely used to indicate future time. Shall is a modal used to impose obligation on the subject of a sentence. In contract law it conveys the meaning â€Å"has a duty to†. Lawyers tend to avoid using the modal must, because they find it too bossy. Another alternative instead of shall could be will but it seems less promising. Even if many legal drafters tend to avoid using the modal must, this may be an alternative to shall as a means of expressing obligation. The use of must instead of shall may express any obligation whether it is imposed on the subject of a sentence. For example:†The Company must reimburse the Sales Manager for all authorized expenses†./†The meeting must take place at the companys headquarters†. But a disciplined use of shall to impose an obligation on the subject of the sentence makes clear who owes the obligation: The Company shall reimburse the Sales Manager for all authorized expenses. An obligation can be expressed in other ways by using passive voice: The Sales Manager shall be reimbursed for all authorized expenses. Or one could use is entitled to: The Sales Manager shall be entitled to be reimbursed for all authorized expenses.† Shall is also used to express future time in contracts and these may result in confusion. There are cases when the simple present tense would be more appropriate as for example: â€Å"This agreement shall be governed by the Los Angeles law.† Due to the fact that shall is unusual in ordinary speech, this modal verb has been criticized by the Plain English Campaign, which recommends the use of must to express obligations. (Tiersma, 214). Comparative Analysis of Modal Verbs in European Directives and British Statutes Modal verbs usually appear in the sequence of verbs in a verb phrase. They are finite verb form with no inflected endings and no past tense. They are followed by the short infinitive. The most frequently used modals in legal English are: shall, may, must, would, will followed by can, ought to, should. According to the European style guide the enacting terms of the EU legislation can be divided into two linguistic categories: imperative terms and declarative terms. The imperative terms may be further divided into positive and negative commands and permissions and the declarative terms are those terms that are implemented by virtue of being declared. The study of modality is concerned with the meaning of the modals. Legal language contains both deontic and epistemic modality. Epistemic modality shows how certain is a speaker about an expressed utterance. Deontic modality involves both language and action and refers to the instances when the speaker orders, promises or places an obligation to someone. Deontic modality can be divided into: a) directives (expressing possibility by the use of may or necessity by the use of must); b) commissives (expressing promises) and imperatives. I carried out a comparative analysis to show the frequency of the modals in both European and British legislative texts. The European directives used in this work were taken from the Official Journal of the European Communities and the Acts of Parliament from the online UK Statute Law Database. Table 2 Act of Parliament Directive ↓ ↓ Shall → 60 301 Should → 20 150 Will → 10 6 Would → 30 12 Must → 90 1 Can → 5 30 Could → 10 5 May → 100 96 According to table 1 the most frequently used modal verb in the European directive is shall, while may is the most frequently used modal in the British Act of Parliament. EU legal drafters tend to use modal verbs in prescriptive statements and should is used instead of must because it is less strong than must. Bhatia states that â€Å"shall not only sustains the myth of precision in legal language but also perpetuates a style and language that differentiates the genre from that of other professions†.(Bhatia, 101-102) The verb shall is one of the most frequently used modal auxiliary in legislative writing, especially in European legal texts, and therefore it fulfils a variety of functions. Crystal and Davy talk about the different uses of this modal verb and state that in legal English: â€Å"Shall is invariably used to express what is to be the obligatory consequence of a legal decision, and not simply as a marker of future tense, which is its main function in other varieties .†(Crystal and Davy, 206-207) In the European legal text shall is used to indicate a positive command, as for example: â€Å"For authorisation as a payment institution, an application shall be submitted to the competent authorities of the home Member State†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Shall may be also used to give directions or to indicate future events as in the following example: â€Å"Each element shall be included in the sum with its positive or negative sign.† Here the verb shall may have the meaning of is to be included, but it can be also interpreted as a future event meaning that after the directive comes into force each element will be included in the sum. Shall is also used in both European and British texts to express an order: â€Å" If the payment service user provides information additional to that specified in Articles 37(1)(a) or 42(2)(b), the payment service provider shall be liable only for the execution of payment transactions in accordance with the unique identifier provided by the payment service user.† (Directive 2007/64/EC, 319-31) In this example taken out from the European directive, the modal verb shall indicates the obligations of the payment service provider which represents the addresser. So, according to this provision the addresser must conform to this obligation of executing the payment transactions. In British legal texts shall is used to express an obligation: â€Å"Accordingly, in determining in the case of an offender whether it should take steps as mentioned in subsection (1), the court shall also have regard to the matters mentioned in those paragraphs.†(Criminal Justice and Immigration Act, Part 2, p. 8) In this example taken from Criminal Justice and Immigration Act shall expresses the obligations of the court and the steps that have to be taken in determining the case of the offender. Shall can be used to express the application of a directive: â€Å"This Directive shall apply to payment services provided within the Community.† (Directive 2007/64/EC, 319-9) Shall can also be used to state rules: â€Å"This Section shall apply to other payment transactions, unless otherwise agreed between the payment service user and his payment service provider, with the exception of Article 73, which is not at the disposal of the parties.† (Directive 2007/64/EC, 319-30) In this example shall serves as an indicator for the application of this provision. It also indicates the rules according to which this section is valid. Shall may be used to express prohibitions: â€Å"†¦such credit shall not be granted from the funds received or held for the purpose of executing a payment transaction;†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Directive 2007/64/EC, 319-17) The use of shall may also create ambiguity, especially in British legal writings: â€Å"No order or regulations which, by virtue of section 18A, is or are to have effect for a limited period shall be made unless a draft of the order or regulations has been laid before, and approved by a resolution of, each House of Parliament†(Criminal Justice and Immigration Act, Part 4, p. 45). The predicate from this sentence, containing the modal auxiliary shall refers to an inanimate subject no order or regulations. This indicates that a rule is imposed an abstract thing (in this case order or regulation) and the agent of the action is not specified. So, in this example we have passive voice without an agent. This construction shall + BE + past participle is frequently used in both types on legal documents. The construction shall + short infinitive is also widely used especially in European legal texts. Critics also say that legal drafters should avoid using a negative subject with the affirmative form of shall. (No orders or regulations (†¦) shall be made). Shall is a modal verb which expresses a legal obligation, but in most of the cases this verb occurs with non-human subjects. Anna Trosborg argues that â€Å"statements with non-human subjects typically refer to functions of the statutory instruments, they explain when a law is effectuated, how far an act extends, whom it affects, how a term is to be understood, etc., and such they serve as conditions to be considered by the citizens as well as the court.†(Trosborg, 106). In this cases the modal verb shall has a declarative function and here are some examples when the modal verb is used with inanimate subjects: â€Å"An authorisation shall only be granted to a legal person established in a Member State† (Directive 2007/64/EC, 25). â€Å"A provision shall not be contained by virtue of subsection (1)(b) in a warrant under section 4A unless it satisfies the following two conditions† (Criminal Justice and Immigration Act, Part 6, p. 71) In these texts I did not find any sentences where human subjects are specified. In most of the instances shall is used in the passive voice with non human subject. Because of the fact that most of the passive constructions with shall are agentless, most occurrences of shall are unmotivated. Verbal groups are characterized by a high number of non-finites. Among the finites the most frequently found group is modal auxiliary+ be +past participle, and in this construction the most used modal auxiliary is shall which expresses deontic modality. Crystal and Davy say that shall expresses â€Å"what is to be the obligatory consequence of a legal decision and not simply as a marker of the future sense, which is its normal function†( Crystal, Davy, 206-207). e.g. : â€Å"Such waste shall be subject to all provisions of Directive 75/442/EEC. It shall in particular be: destined for duly authorised facilities only, authorised according to Articles 10 and 11 of Directive 75/442/EEC, subject to all provisions of Articles 8, 12, 13 and 14 of Directive 75/442/EEC†( Case C 176/05). In this example shall occurs in passive sentences. In legal language shall does not indicate the future, it indicates an obligation. Shall is also to be found in declarations. It is commonly used in legal language and therefore it has the function of indicating that the document in which it occurs is legal. The verbs used with shall are selected from a small number of lexical sets, such as apply, be, preclude, exceed, act, vacate, etc. The frequency of this modal and the avoidance of the modal auxiliary must shows in a way an improvement over the British style, but its use in excess also leads to ambiguities regarding its different meanings. Another modal verb that is predominantly used in legal texts is the modal auxiliary may. As table 1 shows, may is the most frequently used modal verb in British Acts of Parliament. May expresses permission, but it has some other additional meanings. The following three examples have been taken from the Criminal Justice and Immigration Act and show different instances when this modal auxiliary is used: (1) â€Å"†¦or with the requirements of any community order or any youth community order to which he may be subject†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (2) â€Å"The court may make a youth rehabilitation order in respect of the current offence instead of imposing a fine†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (3) â€Å"Rules under sub-paragraph (4)(a) may, in particular, make provision in relation to†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (4)â€Å"The Secretary of State may by order amend paragraph 2, 3 or 4 by substituting for any reference to an amount of money or a number of hours or days there specified a reference to such other amount or number as may be specified in the order.† In the third example reference is made to the inanimate subject rules, while in the first, second and fourth example references are made to human subjects. In the first sentence we have the pronoun he as a subject and in the second sentence the noun court. The most frequently used subject in combination with the modal may is the noun court. In the first sentence may indicates probability, possibility although this modal is not normally used to convey possibility or probability. This feature is characteristic for the common usage. In the fourth example may has the meaning of to grant a right or a power. But this sentence is a little bit ambiguous because the modal verb may can simply refer to the possibility that the Secretary of State might amend the paragraphs under certain circumstances. The use of the negative form of may can be ambiguous. In spite of the fact that the positive form of this modal has a different meaning from must and shall, the negative form is the same. The negative form is used to express prohibition, something that is forbidden, and that is why this form should normally be avoided. Therefore may+not is used in the sense of limiting the rights or the powers of a provision as in the following example: â€Å"The power conferred by subsection (1) may not be exercised in relation to any sentence or order if an appeal, or an application for leave to appeal, against that sentence or order has been determined† (Criminal Justice and Immigration Act, Part 3, p. 206) In the example the negative form of may limits the power of this provision under certain circumstances. This means that the power under section 1 cannot be used in relation to any sentence if that appeal has already been determined. The modal verb must is used to describe a requirement or a prohibition and in general English it expresses obligation. As table 1 shows, it is frequently used in British Acts of Parliament. The European drafters have tried to avoid using this modal auxiliary, perhaps because of the fact that shall is the most frequently used modal verb in the European directives. However, critics have argued that the use of shall and must at the same time leads to ambiguity because readers may not understand any more whether different meanings are intended. Must + not expresses a prohibition, as in the following example: â€Å"The Secretary of State must not release a person under subsection (2) unless the Secretary of State is satisfied that it is not necessary†¦Ã¢â‚¬ (Criminal Justice and Immigration Act, Part 2, p. 22). Must also expresses an obligation: â€Å"Where on a reference under subsection (1) relating to any person the Board recommends his immediate release on licence under this Chapter, the Secretary of State must give effect to the recommendation.† (Criminal Justice and Immigration Act, Part 2, p. 22). Here the verb must suggests that the Secretary of State has the obligation to give effect to the recommendation. To sum up the functions of the most frequently used modals, one can say that the modal shall is the most frequent auxiliary used in the European directives. It fulfils many functions from imposing an obligation to creating rights or defining words. May is frequently used in British statutes and expresses permission and authorization. Must is used to express obligation and prohibition in legal language and should not be used as an alternative to shall. The language of the legislative documents is not only informative providing the reader with details and useful information about their rights and obligations, but it also specifies and mentions the authority which issues, orders or prohibits certain acts. This authoritative and permissive dimension is conveyed in legal English by the means of modal verbs. Bibliography Bhatia, Vijay. Analysing Genre: Language Use in Professional Settings. London: Longman, 1993 Crystal, David. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997. Crystal, David and Davy, Derek. Investigating English Style. London: Longman, 1969. Garner, Bryan. A Dictionary of Modern Legal Usage, second edition, Oxford University Press, 1995. Kimble, Joseph. The Many Misuses of Shall in Scribes J. Legal Writing, 1992. Mellinkoff, David. The Language of Law. Boston: Little Brown, 1994. Taylor, Christopher. Language to language: A practical and theoretical guide for Italian and English translators. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998. Tiersma, Peter. Legal Language, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1999. Trosborg, Anna. Rhetorical Strategies in Legal Language. Tà ¼bingen: Gunter Narr Verlag, 1997. Corpus: Case C 176/05, KVZ retec GmbH v Republik Ãâ€"sterreich, March 2007 Criminal Justice and Immigration Act 2008 DIRECTIVE 2007/64/EC OF THE EUROPEAN PARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL of 13 November 2007 on payment services in the internal market amending Directives 97/7/EC, 2002/65/EC, 2005/60/EC and 2006/48/EC and repealing Directive 97/5/EC